The pastoral areas of Ethiopia account for 60% of the national landmass and are home to about 12% of the human
population. In this area, the risk of heavy livestock losses due to recurrent droughts presents one of the most
serious threats to pastoralists’ livelihoods and the national economy, particularly the export trade since almost all
the export camels and sheep/goats are sourced from these areas. Droughts have been estimated to occur every
5–6 years in the southern rangeland (Desta and Coppock 2002; Megersa et al. 2014b) with increasing frequency
and severity due to climate change. Thus, pastoralists experienced 5–7 drought episodes during the past three
decades and lost about half of their herds, particularly cattle, which are highly vulnerable to drought-related feed
and water shortages (Megersa et al. 2014b).
As part of drought mitigation, herders are rearing more camels and small ruminants, which are more droughttolerant (Megersa et al. 2014a).

Camels feed on scanty vegetation and tolerate water shortages in arid environments, making them resilient to droughts while still producing milk even during extended dry periods. As
a result, camels are being introduced in previously cattle-dominated territories such as Borana, Guji, and south
Omo in response to climate change and variability, and rangeland degradation. The Afar and Karayu pastoralists,
who preferred to raise cattle in the past, are also now primarily keeping camels and small ruminants (Gebru et al.
2008).
According to Wilson (2020), camels might have been present in Ethiopia at least as early as 100 AD, as evidenced
from rock paintings in a cave at Laga Oda. A camel tooth found in Axum is dated about 500 AD, whereas the
paleontological discovery of a molar tooth and a metatarsal bone dated at 2.6 million years appear to be the first
camel remains recognized in eastern Africa. Tefera and Abebe (2012) suggested that camels were introduced
in Ethiopia around 1000 BC and linked the event to the Queen of Sheba’s visit to Israel’s King Solomon with a
caravan of riches.
Ethiopia has huge potential for camel production, with an estimated 8.1 million heads in 2020 (CSA 2020).
However, despite their essential contribution to the livelihood of pastoralists and to the national economy,
including through the export of live animals, camels are neglected in the national research and development
agenda. They do not receive regular animal health care services and are often excluded from regular vaccination
programs against prevailing infectious diseases, whereas cattle and small ruminants in the same geographic areas
are often vaccinated. Due to their high mobility, conventional stationary veterinary clinics often cannot reach
herds in remote foraging areas and most health care activities are carried out by the herders themselves (Megersa
2010). Consequently, camels are often viewed as a reserve of the pastoral community, and their contribution
to the national economy is greatly underestimated (Alary and Faye 2016). The pastoral production system is
characterized by extensive mobile animal management systems with low input and low output.

Unlike other domestic animals, the camel is multipurpose and can be used for milk, meat, transportation, racing,
tourism, draught power for agricultural production, beauty contests and parade shows (Tefera and Abebe 2012; Wilson 2020).

Milk production is the principal production objective of camel rearing in Ethiopia; camel milk is a
valuable source of food and cash income, and a core element of pastoralist culture (Kebede et al. 2015). Camels
produce more milk for a longer period (about 12 months of lactation) than any other species in arid environments
and provide a constant supply of milk for families during long droughts (Farah et al. 2007; Tefera and Abebe
2012). Under pastoral management in Ethiopia, reported daily milk yields are 1.5–10litres, corresponding to
annual lactation yields ranging from 540 to over 3,600litres (Mirkena et al. 2018). Camel milk has high contents
of protein (2.7–4.5%), fat (2.9–5.2%), minerals such as calcium, and vitamin C, and is traditionally used to treat
several diseases as well as help build the immune system (Farah et al. 2007).
Several factors have been reported to affect the milk production potential of camels, including management
practices, health care, seasonal feed availability, parity, lactation stage (Bekele et al. 2002; Getahun and Kassa
2002; Megersa et al. 2008), infectious diseases, internal and external parasites (Megersa 2010), and udder
infections (Badaso et al. 2019). Herd productivity is affected by high calf mortality, ranging from 12.4% in Afar
(Keskes et al. 2013b) and 15–20% in Borana area (Megersa et al. 2008; Muluneh et al. 2022) to 45% in eastern
Ethiopia (Getahun and Kassa 2002).
Women play a crucial role in the organization and daily operation of the camel milk supply chain and generate
petty cash from the sale of about three quarters of the milk produced. The cash managed by the women is used to
buy essential household food items such as sugar, tea and spices. Milk marketing is predominantly informal and
is constrained by several factors, including hot climatic conditions, lack of cooling and storage facilities at milk
vending sites, unhygienic milking and handling, and knowledge gaps in hygiene practices (Farah et al. 2007;
Amenu et al. 2019; Machan et al. 2022).
In general, identifying constraints, including disease burdens, in camel production is vital for improving herd
productivity and economic contribution at the national and household levels. In this study, we conducted a
comprehensive review of published and unpublished literature on camel demography, productivity, economic
value and constraints, including disease burden, with the purpose of providing baseline information to inform
further research and development of camels in Ethiopia.